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Design’s role in construction accident causality and prevention：

译文题目： Perspectives from an expert panel

学生姓名： 赵书豪 学 号： 1121115083

专 业： 工程管理

所在学院： 龙蟠学院

指导教师： 高群

职 称： 教授

2015年12月31日

原文：

Design’s role in construction accident causality and prevention: Perspectives from an expert panel

1. Introduction

Traditionally in the construction industry, safety on the construction site is the responsibility of the constructor. This responsibility reflects the constructor’s control over the construction workers, project schedule, and work methods and sequence, and the contractual relationships amongst the project team members. There is growing evidence, however, that the architects and engineers who design the project features can and should play a role in keeping the project site safe. The basis for their involvement is the occupational safety and health principle that the most effective means for ensuring worker safety is to eliminate safety hazards from the work site. Designing to eliminate or avoid a hazard is given higher priority than simply controlling the hazard or protecting the workers from the hazard (Manuele, 1997). Improving safety through design is recognized by safety professionals as the foremost method for eliminating hazards and reducing risk regardless of work industry.

The impact that designers can have on construction site safety and the need to address safety early in a project’s lifecycle has not gone unrecognized in construction. The ideal situation is for construction worker safety to be a prime consideration of the planners and designers in the conceptual and preliminary design phases (Szymberski, 1997). Szymberski’s time-safety influence curve illustrates how safety can be influenced to the greatest extent in the early phases of a project. The planning and design phases provide an opportunity to eliminate hazards before they appear on the jobsite and the ability to eliminate hazards diminishes as the project progresses. A considerable portion of the ability to positively and effectively influence construction site safety is lost when its consideration is absent until the construction phase.

This paper presents a recent study of the link between construction fatalities and the design for safety concept. In the study, the researchers employed an approach that utilized the knowledge and experience of an expert panel of construction industry professionals and academics. Based on the input of the expert panelists, the researchers endeavored to validate the results of previous research (Behm, 2005) to further explore the relationship between design and construction worker safety.

2. Previous research

The relationship between project characteristics and safety performance is complex with many impacting variables. Research studies have been conducted in an attempt to confirm and quantify the relationship between design and construction site safety (for example, Hecker et al., 2005 and Weinstein et al., 2005). While the methodologies selected for the research studies differ, all of the studies indicate that a link exists. Jeffrey and Douglas (1994), for example, conducted a review of the safety performance of the United Kingdom’s construction industry and conclude that in terms of causation there is a definite link between design decisions and safe construction. Trethewy and Atkinson (2003) maintain that design professionals influence construction worker safety and health outcomes both directly and indirectly. Similarly, in a study of an intervention to prevent musculoskeletal injuries to construction workers, antecedents in design, planning, scheduling, and material specifications were likewise identified as probable contributors to working conditions that pose risks of such injuries during the actual construction process (Hecker et al., 2001).

Construction contractors also recognize the link between design and construction safety in the performance of their work activities. As part of a survey of general contractors in South Africa on a variety of issues, Smallwood (1996) obtained input on the topic from the constructor community. Approximately 50% of the 71 contractors interviewed identified the design as an aspect or factor that negatively affects health and safety on the construction site. In comparisons with other project components, the design was ranked the highest with regard to impact on safety. To improve safety through design, almost 90% of the contractors suggested that architects and engineers should be exposed to construction site safety as part of their education in a university or technical college.

Studies have been conducted to quantitatively measure the magnitude of the relationship between design and construction safety. An initial attempt at determining the extent to which the design and the design process are linked to construction accidents was reported by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Lorent, 1987; as cited in European Foundation, 1991). In the study, Lorent reviewed construction fatalities and concluded that approximately 60% of fatal accidents arise from decisions made upstream from the construction site. The researcher purports that these fatal accidents are due to shortcomings in design and organization of the work. More recently, as part of a study to identify where and why safety on construction sites is compromised, Gibb et al., 2004 and Haslam et al., 2003 analyzed accident data in the UK to examine the possible contribution of design in each incident. A total of 100 construction accidents were selected and given to a group of experts to review. Validation of the experts’ opinions was then conducted using the research study steering group. Following their review of each incident, the experts were asked to answer the question, “What could designers have done to reduce the risk?” By studying the experts’ responses to this question for each incident, the researchers found that in 47 of the 100 incidents (47%) changes in the permanent design would have reduced the likelihood of the accidents. The importance of design to safety on the construction site is recognized in the UK’s construction (design and management) regulations, which place responsibility for addressing project safety on all of the parties involved in the project (CDM, 1994).

A more recent study attempted to link the design for construction safety concept to construction fatalities through a review of fatality incidents in the US (Behm, 2005). In the study, Behm used the database of incidents investigated within the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health’s (NIOSH) fatality assessment control and evaluation (FACE) program as the data source. A total of 230 fatality incidents that occurred between 1990 and 2003 were randomly selected from the FACE database. The incident reports were reviewed and 224 cases were deemed to contain sufficient information to be included in the study. A thorough review of each case was conducted to determine whether the design could be linked to the incident. A link was deemed to exist if any one of the following three criteria were met:

1.The permanent features of the construction project were a causal factor in the incident. Linkage to the design for construction safety concept was affirmed if the structure failed during construction because it was not designed to withstand construction activities or if the features of the permanent structure prohibited the constructor from implementing a temporary safety device.

2.One of the previously developed design suggestions (Gambatese, 1996) could have been implemented to reduce the safety hazard. Linkage to the design for construction safety concept was affirmed if one or more of these design suggestions would have reduced the risk posed to the constructor or provided a greater opportunity for the constructor to reduce risk by facilitating the utilization of temporary safety measures.

3.The design or the design process could have been modified to prevent the incident. This portion of the research developed new design suggestions, adding to the existing body of knowledge in #2 above.

The design was linked to the incident in approximately 42% of the cases. That is, in 94 of the 224 cases, at least one of the criteria stated above was met. The researcher also identified 43 existing design suggestions that could have been implemented to reduce the hazards associated with the fatalities. In addition, the researcher developed 30 new design suggestions based on the nature of the designs and accidents reviewed. Based on the results of this research study, there is a clear and significant relationship between design and construction site safety.

The research also provided additional insights about the relationship between those incidents that could be related to the design and various project factors. Factors such as the nature of the project (new construction, renovation, upgrade, etc.), project type (residential, commercial building, etc.), design element, standard industrial classification (SIC) code, and designer discipline (architecture, civil, mechanical, etc.), were tested for their relationship to the design for construction safety concept. Specifically, the previous research data supported the notion that the design for safety concept can positively affect construction site safety not just during the initial construction work, but also during subsequent maintenance, renovation, and repair work. Fatalities that occurred during construction of the design elements of thermal and moisture protection, doors and windows (including skylights), and metals were more often related to the design for construction safety concept. This finding was largely due to the prevention of falls when erecting structural steel framing and while building and maintaining roofs where permanent anchor points, lifeline systems, and other forms of permanent fall protection could be designed into the permanent features of the structure. In a directly related finding, the analysis revealed that roofing and structural steel constructors would benefit mostly from the implementation of the design for safety concept. This finding is associated with the fact that many design for safety suggestions and modifications can have a positive impact on fall prevention and protection measures. In fact, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recognizes that the design for construction safety concept can potentially eliminate and minimize risk from falls to a lower level and recommended that additional safety through design demonstration projects are needed to accurately quantify its benefits in reducing risk and enhancing construction safety (NIOSH, 2005). In terms of the design discipline that could have the most positive affect in enhancing construction site safety through the design, architects were found to be more likely to have a positive impact on construction safety compared to electrical, mechanical, and civil engineers.

The findings of previous research are compelling and provide insight into the design for safety concept as applied to the construction industry. In recognition of the difficulties associated with conducting construction site safety research, however, Behm and other researchers (Haslam et al., 2003 and Gibb et al., 2004) recommend additional confirmation and measurement of the link between design and construction site safety. This recommendation is founded on the inability to employ an experimental method that assesses injury outcomes in a controlled setting. As a result, cause and effect may still be questioned. The limitations in the available research approaches warrant additional efforts to further establish and confirm the relationship between the design and worksite safety.

中文译文：

从一个专家的观点看设计在建筑事故因果关系和预防中扮演的角色

一、介绍

传统的建筑行业，施工现场的安全是施工者的责任。这种责任体现在施工者对建筑工人，项目的进度，工作的方法和顺序，合同关系包括项目团队成员的控制上。然而，有越来越多的证据表明，那些设计项目特点的建筑师和工程师，可以而且应该在保持项目现场安全中发挥作用。他们参与的基础是职业安全与健康，保障工人安全的最有效的方法是消除工作现场的安全隐患。通过设计消除或避免危险是比简单地控制危险或保护工人免受危害更高的优先级（Manuele，1997）。通过设计改进安全是安全专业人士公认的无论任何工作行业消除危险和减少风险最重要的方法。

设计师对施工现场的安全及在项目的生命周期早期需要解决的安全的影响没有一直无法识别。理想的情况是，建筑工人的安全在概念设计阶段和初步的规划与设计的主要考虑因素（szymberski，1997）。szymberski的时间安全的影响曲线说明安全如何可以在项目的早期阶段中影响最大。规划和设计阶段提供了一个机会，使他们出现在现场，消除危害的能力也随之下降，随着项目的进展，危害也慢慢消除了。规划和设计在没有到施工阶段时，有效地控制了相当一部分建筑施工现场的安全。

本文提出了最近的一项研究关于施工事故和安全设计概念之间的联系。在这项研究中，研究人员采用一种方法，利用的知识和建筑行业专业人士及学者专家的经验。根据专家小组成员的输入，研究人员试图验证前人的研究成果（Behm，2005）进一步探索和建筑工人安全设计的关系。

二、以前的研究

项目的特点和安全性能与许多变量有着的复杂关系。研究已经在试图确认和量化关系的设计和施工现场的安全等方面开始着手（例如，Hecker 等人，2005、Weinstein 等人。，2005）。即使选择研究方法不同，但所有的研究表明，存在它们存在一个关系。Jeffrey and Douglas （1994），例如，在对英国的建筑业安全性能审查中发现设计决策和安全施工有一定的因果关系的联系。Trethewy 和Atkinson（2003）认为，受到设计的专业人士的影响，建筑工人的安全和健康会有直接和间接的影响。同样，在防止建筑工人肌肉骨骼损伤的的研究中，先行设计，规划，调度，和材料的规格也确定为影响条件，造成这样的伤害的风险，在实际施工中它们也在影响着。（Hecker 等人。，2001）。

建筑承包商也认识到设计和施工的工作性能安全之间的联系。作为对各种问题的调查，在南非的总承包商负责（1996）从构造社区输入的话题中发现，约50%的71个承包商确定设计的一个方面或因素会对健康和安全在施工现场造成负面影响的。与其他项目比较，设计对安全性的影响是排名最高。通过设计来提高安全性，几乎90%的承包商认为，建筑师和工程师应把施工现场安全教育作为他们在大学或技术学院课程。

研究已进行了对设计与施工安全进行了定量。一个初步的尝试，以确定在何种程度上的设计过程中的设计与施工事故是由欧洲改善生活和工作条件基金会的报告（Lorent，1987；在欧洲的基础，1991引用）。在这项研究中，Lorent审查建设死亡和得出结论，大约60%的致命事故产生于决定从上游施工现场。研究者声称，这些致命的事故都是由于在工作设计和组织的缺点所引起的。最近，作为研究的一部分，以确定在哪里和为什么工地的安全受到损害也被提了出来（Gibb等人，2004，Haslam等人）。2003的分析事故的数据在英国的研究设计中作出了贡献。一个专家组对100个施工事故进行了审查。专家意见的验证是通过研究指导小组进行的。在每个事件回顾中，专家们被要求回答这个问题，“是哪位设计师做的降低风险的措施？”在研究专家的这个问题中，研究人员发现在47个事件（47%）中，永久性设计的变化会降低事故发生的可能性。设计对施工现场安全的重要性是公认的英国建筑（设计和管理）的规定，是对工程的安全和对所有参与项目的各方责任（CDM，1994）。

最近的研究通过在美国的死亡事件回顾试图连接设计和施工安全施工事故的概念，（Behm，2005）。在这项研究中，用于研究Behm国家职业安全与健康研究所内的事件数据库（NIOSH）死亡率评估控制和评价（面）程序作为数据源。在共有230个死亡事件发生1990和2003之间从人脸数据库中随机抽取。在该事件的报道综述中，研究包括224例被认为包含足够的信息的事件。每个案件进行全面审查，以确定是否可以连接到事件设计。如果存在以下三种任何一种情况则存在关系：

（1）建设项目的永久性是事件发生的原因。对施工安全和设计概念存在联系的肯定是在结构施工过程中的失败原因中，它不是设计用来承受施工活动或如果永久结构禁止构造实施临时安全装置。

（2）一个以前的设计建议（gambatese，1996）会对实施减少安全隐患。施工安全设计概念联系是肯定了一个或更多的这些设计建议会减少对提供结构功能或临时安全措施的使用的风险。

（3）设计或设计过程中可以被修改，防止事故。这部分的研究会得出新的设计建议，并对#2以上的现有知识有所增加。

设计是在约42%的情况下对事件的联系。那就是，在224例中的94例，在上述中至少一个符合标准。研究人员还确定了43个现有设计的建议来减少与死亡相关的危险。此外，研究人员开发了30个新的设计建议并在新建议的基础上进行了设计和事故回顾。基于本研究的结果，设计和施工现场的安全有一个明确的和显著的关系。

研究还提供了关于这些事件工程设计相关因素之间的关系更多的见解。如工程的自然因素（新建，改造，升级，等等），项目类型（住宅，商业大厦，等），设计元素，标准产业分类（SIC）的代码，和设计师专业（建筑，土木，机械，等），并进行了测试，他们的关系到了设计施工安全概念。具体地说，以前的研究数据表明，安全的设计对施工现场的安全影响不只是在一开始的建设工作中，而随后的维修，改造，维修工作依然影响。在施工过程中对热湿保护设计发生死亡，而门窗（包括天窗），和金属，往往更多的是有关设计施工安全的概念。这主要是由于预防跌倒时架设钢结构在建设和维护屋顶永久锚点，生命线系统，以及其他形式的永久性摔落保护可以设计成结构的永久性特征。一个直接相关的发现，分析结果显示，屋面钢结构施工将主要从安全理念设计实施效益。这一发现与事实上的安全建议和修改许多设计可以产生积极的影响，可以预防跌倒和采取保护措施。事实上，美国国家职业安全和健康研究所（NIOSH）确认，施工安全设计概念可以将风险下降到一个较低的水平甚至消除，建议通过示范项目的设计需要准确地量化其效益在降低风险和提高施工安全上的作用（美国，2005）。在设计学科在中，可以通过设计加强施工现场安全从而产生最积极的影响，建筑师和土木工程师被认为是更可能比电气，机械对施工安全产生积极的影响。

以前的研究结果是令人信服的，安全设计概念应用于建筑行业。然而在进行建筑施工现场的安全性研究当中，Behm和其他研究人员（Haslam等人。，2003，Gibb等人。，2004）发现设计和施工现场的安全额外的联系。这个建议是建立在无法采用实验方法，对损伤的结果进行一定控制的基础上的。作为一个结果，因果可能仍被质疑。在现有的具有局限性研究方法中需要进一步的努力，进一步建立和确认设计和现场安全之间的关系。

外文翻译